Channel Considerations

Channel-Specific Modeling Considerations

Different advertising channels require specific modeling approaches due to their unique infrastructure, operational characteristics, and consumption patterns. This document details the methodology considerations for Linear TV, Traditional Radio, Digital Out-of-Home (DOOH), and Classic Out-of-Home (OOH). While these channels share some common principles, each has distinct lifecycle boundaries, data requirements, and default assumptions that reflect the nature of their delivery and usage.

Linear TV

Definition and Scope

We classify Linear TV as content that is transmitted via traditional broadcast methods and follows a predetermined programming schedule.

Glossary

Term	Definition
TV Network	The organization or company responsible for distributing TV content (e.g., BBC, NBC, Canal+).
TV Channel	A specific frequency within a TV network (e.g., BBC One, ESPN2)..
Broadcast Method	The type of infrastructure used to transmit Linear TV content (e.g., OTA/DTT, Cable, Satellite, IPTV).
Co-viewing Factor	An average number of viewers per TV device, used to estimate device-level reach from audience impressions.

Definition of Broadcast methods

Broadcast method	Equipment involved
Over-the-air (OTA) & Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT)	Transmitting towers, repeaters, household antennas…
Cable	Same as the Internet network (infrastructure is typically shared across telephone, television and Internet)
Satellite	Transmitting Satellite dishes, Satellite, Receiving satellite dishes, set top boxes
IPTV (Internet Protocol Television)	Internet network, set top boxes

Boundaries of Measurement

The Scope3 Linear TV model focuses on estimating emissions coming from the distribution (broadcasting) and consumer viewing of television content and advertising.

Lifecycle Category	Emissions Source	Status	Includes
Media Production	Content production	Not Included
Creative Production	Ad production	Not included
Media Distribution	Corporate emissions from TV network	Included
Media & Creative Distribution	Broadcast Signal preparation, transmission & reception	Included	Encoding & multiplexing OTA/DTT, cable, Satellite & IPTV networks (use phase & embodied) Household Equipment used for signal reception (use phase & embodied)
Media & Creative Consumer Device	TV viewing	Included	Television device (use phase & embodied)

Emissions Calculation Methodology

Corporate Emissions

For Linear TV, we estimate corporate emissions per TV spot rather than per audience or household impression. We do this to avoid having differing numbers depending on fluctuating TV ratings. All other aspects of our calculations for corporate emissions remain as described in Corporate Emissions.

Broadcast Signal Emissions

Encoding & Multiplexing

In A comparison of the carbon footprint of digital terrestrial television with video-on-demand the BBC estimated that their encoding & multiplexing facility required a power draw of 400kW to encode TV content for their 24 channels.

We use this estimate to derive that it takes an average power draw of 16.7kW to encode and multiplex TV content for one channel (no matter the number of viewing households). For TV networks and/or channels where actual power usage data is available, we use those values instead of the average.

Signal Transmission

Energy Use

For each TV broadcast method we consider a fixed energy consumption required to broadcast the signal no matter the number of viewing households.

Different TV broadcast methods have varying power efficiency in different countries but for now we do not differentiate between countries.

For each TV broadcast method we have derived power draw estimates from annual energy consumption, either from primary sourced energy consumption data shared with Scope3 by network operators or from the BBC paper.

TV Broadcast Method	Energy consuming sources	Required Power for signal transmission of 1 TV channel	Source(s)	Assumptions
OTA/DTT	Over the air transmission network	165 kW	Terrestrial Network operators	- National distribution
Cable	Cable network	16 kW	BBC paper	- TV represents 53% of cable network usage - The Virgin Media cable network provider in the UK hosts 400 channels.
Satellite	Uplink transmission from TV station tower to satellite	3.15kW	BBC paper	- No emissions coming from downlink transmission from space satellite to household dishes (satellites being powered by the sun) - Assuming equal energy usage across all BBC’s 24 channels

Once again, for TV networks and/or channels where actual power usage data is available, we use those values instead of the above defaults.

Embodied Emissions

In the absence of data specific to each TV broadcast method, we utilize our estimates of the embodied emissions as the fixed Internet network (0.00000443 gCO2e per kb) to derive the embodied emissions of each broadcast method per second, assuming 6Mbps per transmitter per channel, across 1000 transmitters.

embodied_emissions_gco2e_per_second = 0.00000443 gCO2e/kb * 1000 transmitters * 6000 kbps/channel = 27 gCO2e/second/channel

Broadcast Method Usage

The prevalence of each TV broadcast method varies by TV network and geographically. For example, in France OTA/DTT and IPTV are the most widely used broadcast methods in terms of households, whereas in Germany satellite is the most prevalent method. We apply a country-specific ratio of broadcast methods for major markets, and use a global average for other countries.

Country	% of households using OTA/DTT	% of households using cable	% of households using satellite	% of households using IPTV
Global Defaults	26%	29%	20%	25%
USA	19%	43%	17%	21%
UK	41%	9%	23%	27%
France	46%	0%	8%	46%
Germany	3%	42%	46%	9%
Australia	48%	0%	8%	44%

Household Equipment Emissions

Energy Consumption

We consider some household equipment “passive”, meaning that they do not require any power to receive the broadcast signal, and others “active”.

Component	Broadcasting Method(s)	Global % of household with that equipment for that broadcast method	Active or Passive	Estimated Power Draw	Source(s)
Household antena	OTA/DTT	100%	Passive	0W	-
Satellite dish	Satellite	100%	Passive	0W	-
Low-Noise Block Downconverter (LNB)	Satellite	100%	Active	5W	Average across various manufacturers’ specifications
Signal Amplifier	OTA/DTT & Satellite	20%	Active	5W	BBC paper
Decoder / STB	Cable, Satellite & IPTV	100%	Active	16W	BBC paper
Co-axial cable	Cable & IPTV	100%	Passive	0W	-
Home router	IPTV	100%	Active	5W	See Data Transfer

Embodied Emissions

Similarly to how we model consumer devices (see Consumer Devices), we estimate Production Energy per Use Second (PEPS) for each and every piece of household equipment.

Component	Broadcasting Method(s)	Global % of household with that equipment for that broadcast method	Equipment use Allocation % for Linear TV	Lifetime Impact kgCO2e (excluding use)	Usage (h/day)	Years in use	PEPS (gCO2e/s)	Mass (grams)	Example Unit
Household antena	OTA/DTT	100%	100%	127	3.9	20	0.001239121	860	Clearstream 2MAX HDTV Antenna
Satellite dish	Satellite	100%	100%	592	3.9	20	0.005776061	4000	Cahors SMC65 White Fibreglass Satellite Dish
Low-Noise Block Downconverter (LNB)	Satellite	100%	100%	37	3.9	20	0.000361004	250	Universal 0.1dB Satellite LNB
Signal Amplifier	OTA/DTT & Satellite	20%	100%	59	3.9	20	0.000115131	400	Antenna Signal Amplifier
Decoder / STB	Cable, Satellite & IPTV	100%	100%	265	3.9	20	0.005171135	1790	Technisat Technicorder ISIO SC
Co-axial cable	Cable & IPTV	100%	100%	18	3.9	20	0.000175623	120	CIMPLE CO Coaxial Cable
Home router	IPTV	100%	50%	45.9	24	5	0.000145548	310	Fritz!Box 7530

Summary

Broadcast Method	Variable Power per viewing device	PEPs (gCO2e/s)
OTA/DTT	1W	0.00135
Cable	16W	0.00535
Satellite	22W	0.0114
IPTV	21W	0.00549

TV Viewing Emissions

We follow the same methodology as described in Consumer Devices, accounting for both use phase (energy consumption) and embodied emission (production & disposal).

We adapt the “synthetic TV system” for Linear TV accordingly:

• Set-top boxes (STBs) and decoders are excluded, as they are already accounted for under household equipment.
• We retain the assumption from Urban et al. that 7% of televisions come with a sound bar.

This results in the following TV system:

Device	Power (W)	PEPS (gCO2e/s)
TV System (Linear TV)	75	0.0096

Estimating the number of TV impressions

We estimate the number of TV devices reached using a co-viewing factor of 1.5, in line with published audience measurement benchmarks across major markets. This means that for every 1.5 audience impressions, we assume one TV device was used to view the content. Example:

• Input: 1,000,000 audience impressions for a TV spot
• Device count estimate: 1,000,000 ÷ 1.5 = 666,667 TV devices

Digital Out-of-Home (DOOH)

Definition and Scope

Digital Out-of-Home (DOOH) refers to digital displays used for advertising in public spaces, such as billboards, transit displays, and retail screens. Unlike Linear TV, DOOH screens are owned or leased by media owners who have direct control over their operation and maintenance.

Boundaries of Measurement

DOOH screens, like consumer devices, require energy to display an ad. Energy consumption during the use phase is in fact the highest source of emissions. However, on the contrary to consumer devices, billboards are owned or leased by media owners who therefore have a high level of operational control over the screen attributes that influence embodied and energy related emissions (venue category, manufacturer, model, size, location and positioning, operating hours, brightness settings etc…). For that reason, we are including emissions from screens’ energy usage and production to “media distribution”.

Emissions source	Lifecycle category	Status
Screens’ embodied emissions	Media Distribution	In-development
Screens’ energy consumption	Media Distribution	Included
Corporate emissions	Media Distribution	Included
Use of Ad Technology	Ad Selection	In-development
Creative data transfers	Creative Distribution	Included
Screens’ recycling/disposal	Disposal	To be considered

Emissions Calculation Methodology

Screen Emissions

Embodied Emissions

Coming soon

Energy Consumption

On the contrary to consumer device emissions, we have found no credible research paper describing the power draw of large digital billboards. As such, we estimate for individual screens based on a variety of input data sources (listed in order from most accurate to least accurate):

• Electricity metres installed on the screens themselves and monitoring power draw in near real-time.
• Power bills received by media owners on a monthly, quaterly or yearly basis, for a group of or for individual screens.
• Technical specifications from screen manufacturers like Daktronics, Samsung or Panasonic. We have found that these often document maximum power draw (instead of average power draw), which can lead to an over-estimation of energy consumption.
• Extrapolation based on physical dimensions and one of the above data point for screens from the same media owner.
• Extrapolation based on physical dimensions and venue type, off the back of data for 500k+ screens kindly provided to us by early partners (including DOOH programmatic platform Hivestack and DOOH media owners JCDecaux ANZ, Go Media and Lumo).

When no screen attribute or energy data is available to us for a given screen, we estimate the power draw of that screen to be “the 80th percentile” amongst screens that media owner and/or venue category and/or country (based on statistical relevance). This approach aims to incentivize more media owners to share power draw data with us and the wider advertising industry.

Corporate Emissions

See Corporate Emissions

Ad Selection Emissions

Unlike other digital channels, DOOH lacks a standard such as ads.txt that enables media owners to disclose the vendors involved in their monetization waterfall. This makes mapping the ad tech graph more challenging. We encourage DOOH media owners to share this information with us via Ad Stack Declaration. Where no declared data is available, and after consultation with the media owner, we assume the presence of one ad server and five SSPs called by that ad server for each ad request.

Creative Data Transfer Emissions

See Emissions from Data Transfer

Additional Considerations

Impression Multiplier

One key difference between the digital out-of-home channel and others is its one-to-many nature, meaning that most likely one ad play can be viewed by multiple individuals around the screen. For this reason, our modelling is done “per play” and translated to “per impression” through the use of a screen specific average impression multiplier provided by partners (media owners and platforms).

When no impression multiplier data is provided to us for a given screen, we once again estimate that value to be the 80th percentile amongst screens that media owner and/or venue category and/or country (based on statistical relevance).

Classic Out-Of-Home

Definition and Scope

Classic OOH includes outdoor advertising displayed on non-digital panels such as posters, billboards, and transit wraps. Unlike DOOH, these formats rely on physical assets printed on paper, vinyl, or similar materials and mounted on a fixed structure. This category excludes print media such as magazines or newspapers. In our data model, the primary object representing inventory is the panel (sometimes called a “frame” in certain markets), which describes the physical structure where ads are displayed. For this channel, emissions come from tangible processes like material extraction, printing, transportation, installation, and disposal — introducing lifecycle considerations unique to physical media..

Transient OOH advertising - displayed on moving vehicles such as buses, taxis, or trains — is also covered under this model when the vehicle’s primary purpose is not advertising.

Measurement Boundaries & GMSF Alignment

Our classic OOH model aligns closely with the Global Media Sustainability Framework (GMSF) and introduces lifecycle categories that reflect the physical nature of this channel. Unlike digital media, classic OOH requires consideration of ad production, logistics, and end-of-life treatment of physical assets.

The model aligns with GMSF and covers the following categories:

Emissions source	Description
Display structure	Amortized emissions from manufacturing the supporting structure over its expected lifetime.
Creation	Emissions from printing the advertisement and, where relevant, producing materials used for display.
Distribution	Transportation and storage of physical assets prior to installation.
Operations	Energy consumption for illumination and mechanical rotation during the display period.
Disposal	Emissions from transporting and processing ad materials and structures at the end of their use, including recycling or landfill.
Corporate emissions	Corporate emissions from the media owner.

Emissions Calculation Methodology

Emissions for classic OOH are calculated using a combination of panel-level data (when available) and venue-type or country-level averages as fallback. We allocate emissions across lifecycle categories using campaign duration and share of time on each panel. Where detailed attributes such as size, illumination, or transportation distances are provided, calculations are more precise.

Panel Object

To support granular measurement, classic OOH introduces a panel object (similar to the “screen” object used for DOOH). A panel represents the physical structure where ads are displayed and carries attributes relevant for emissions estimation:

Attributes	Description
Panel Identifier	Identifier of the panel, provided by the media owner
Media Owner	Name of the organization that owns the panel
Country / Region / Postcode	Location of the panel.
Physical Width / Physical Height	Dimensions of the panel in centimeters.
Average Daily Contacts	Average number of people exposed to the ad per day (if available).
Expected Lifetime Years	Expected lifetime of the panel for amortizing embodied emissions.
Average Daily Illumination Hours	Average daily hours of illumination.
Illumination Power Draw	Power draw (in watts) for illumination.
Energy Consumption Per Mechanical Rotation	Energy required for a single mechanical rotation (if applicable).
Mechanical Rotations Per Day	Average number of rotations per day (if applicable).
Average Structure Production Emissions	Total embodied emissions of the display structure (if available), excluding end of life emissions.
Average Ad Production Emissions	Emissions from ad asset production (if printed by media owner).
Recycling Percentage of Structure	Percentage of the structure expected to be recycled at end of life.
Recycling Percentage of Ad	Percentage of the ad expected to be recycled at end of life.
Distance Attributes	Distances for logistics: printing → storage, storage → panel, panel → disposal.

The accuracy of emissions estimates for classic OOH depends on the granularity of data provided. The most precise results come from panel-level data shared by media owners, including physical dimensions, energy use, and distances for installation and disposal. Where this information is not available, we apply venue-type and country-level averages derived from industry benchmarks and Scope3 research.

If panel-level data is unavailable, we apply venue-type averages by country, then global defaults. These defaults evolve as more partners share verified data.

Possible Improvements

This is the first version of our classic OOH emissions model, and we expect it to evolve as better data and industry standards emerge. Key areas of focus for future iterations could include:

• Refined recycling modeling: incorporating more accurate data on recycling rates and emissions from different end-of-life scenarios for both ad materials and structures.
• Material-specific defaults: differentiating production and disposal impacts based on material type (e.g., paper vs. vinyl).
• Transport mode-specific defaults: Accounting for the type of vehicles used during installation and disposal logistics, including differences between electric, hybrid, and fuel-powered fleets.
• Regionalized defaults: applying localized emission factors for printing, storage, and disposal processes, reflecting regional infrastructure and grid intensity.
• Integration with industry data: leveraging data shared by media owners and OOH associations to replace assumptions with verified inputs.

Traditional Radio

Definition and Scope

We classify Traditional Radio as content that is transmitted via traditional broadcast methods and follows a predetermined programming schedule.

Glossary

Term	Definition
Radio Network	The organization or company responsible for distributing radio content (e.g., BBC).
Radio Station	A specific frequency within a radio network (e.g., BBC Radio 1).
Broadcast Method	The type of infrastructure used to transmit broadcast audio content (e.g., OTA/DAB, FM, Satellite).
Co-listening Factor	An average number of listeners per radio device, used to estimate device-level reach from audience impressions.

Definition of Broadcast methods

Broadcast method	Definition
FM	For Frequency Modulation: Radio broadcasting that varies the frequency of the carrier wave.
AM	For Amplitude Modulation: Radio broadcasting that varies the amplitude of the carrier wave; enables long-range coverage.
Over-the-air (OTA)	Includes terrestrial digital radio broadcasting methods such as DAB(+), DRM, HD Radio, ISDB-Tsb
Satellite	Includes large-scale, satellite radio services like SiriusXM

We assume that, for all audio broadcast methods, the consumer device is the only required equipment.

Measurement Boundaries & GMSF Alignment

The Scope3 Traditional Radio model focuses on estimating emissions coming from the distribution (broadcasting) and consumer listening to audio content and advertising.

Lifecycle Category	Emissions Source	Status	Includes
Media Production	Content production	Not Included
Creative Production	Ad production	Not included
Tech Manipulation	Post-production storage & Others technical operations	Not included
Media Distribution	Corporate emissions from radio network	Included
Media & Creative Distribution	Broadcast Signal preparation & transmission	Included	Encoding, multiplexing and transmission infrastructure (use phase & embodied)
Media & Creative Consumer Device	Reception & Audio listening	Included	Radio device used for reception (use phase & embodied)

Emissions Calculation Methodology

Corporate Emissions

Similarly to Linear TV, we estimate corporate emissions per radio spot rather than per audience or household impression. We do this to avoid having differing numbers depending on fluctuating Radio ratings. All other aspects of our calculations for corporate emissions remain as described in Corporate Emissions.

Broadcast Signal Emissions

In The energy footprint of BBC radio services: now and in the future (2020) the BBC provides estimated energy use for each broadcasting method for BBC radio in 2018, broken down by process: signal preparation, signal distribution (referred to as Transmission in the report), and consumption.

Signal Preparation

The BBC estimates that signal preparation is marginal for all audio broadcasting methods. We derived average defaults from our Linear TV methodology. For networks and/or channels where actual power usage data is available, we use those values instead of the average.

Signal Transmission

Energy Use & Embodied Emissions

For each audio broadcast method, we assume a fixed energy consumption required to transmit the signal, regardless of the number of radios receiving it. Different audio broadcast methods exhibit varying power efficiency across countries, but for now we do not differentiate between countries.

For each audio broadcast method, we derived power draw estimates from annual energy consumption, either based on primary data shared with Scope3 by network operators or from publicly available sources.

In the absence of embodied emissions data specific to each audio broadcast method, we derived default values from various studies, including, in addition to the BBC paper:

• ICT Impact study, Final report, VHK and Viegand Maagøe for the European Commission - 2020
• Study of the Environmental Impact of Audiovisual Usage in France - ADEME ARCEP (FR) - 2024

Power draws & embodied emissions of each audio broadcast method for the signal transmission of one radio channel:

Audio Broadcast Method	Energy consuming sources	Signal Transmission Power per Radio Channel	Embodied emissions gCO2e/s	Source(s)	Assumptions
FM	FM transmission infrastructure	15 kW	7g	ADEME ARCEP, BBC
AM	AM transmission infrastructure	62 kW	10g	ADEME ARCEP, BBC
OTA/DAB	Over the air transmission network	5 kW	5g	ADEME ARCEP, BBC, Bayerischer Rundfunk, MDR, GatesAir	Estimated to be more efficient than FM
Satellite	Uplink transmission from Radio station tower to satellite	3.15 kW	6g	BBC	Similar to Linear TV

For radio networks and/or channels where actual data are available, we use the contributed values instead of the above defaults.

Broadcast Method Usage

The prevalence of each audio broadcast method varies geographically. For example, in France FM is the most widely used broadcast methods in terms of consumption, whereas in the UK OTA/DAB+ is the most prevalent method (Ofcom).

We apply a country-specific ratio of broadcast methods for major markets, and use a global average for other countries.

Country	% of total radio listening FM	% of total radio listening AM	% of total radio listening OTA/DAB	% of total radio listening Satellite	Source
Global Defaults	60%	15%	20%	5%
FR	95%	insignificant	5%	0%	ADEME ARCEP
UK	39%	grouped with FM	61%	0%	Ofcom / RAJAR
AU	75%	grouped with FM	25%	0%	GFK Radio Ratings

This distribution is only for audio broadcasting methods, digital audio consumption over the internet is modelled in the dedicated digital-audio channel. We will continue to add country-specific distributions as we obtain additional data.

Radio Device Emissions

We follow the same methodology as described Consumer Devices, accounting for both use phase (energy consumption) and embodied emission (production & disposal). Since we do not have deterministic data on the devices used to listen to a given radio spot, we define a “synthetic Radio system” representative of the average listener.

See Consumer Devices - Radio for more details.

Estimating the number of Radio Spot impressions

We consider an impression to be one person listening to a radio spot. Similarly to the Linear TV methodology, we estimate the number of radio devices reached using a co-listening factor of 1.5, in line with published audience measurement benchmarks across major markets. This means that for every 1.5 audience impressions, we assume one radio receiving device was used to listen to the content.